Consistent with Nolen-Hoeksema’s (1991) Response Style Theory, numerous studies have demonstrated that a ruminative style of responding predicts the duration and severity of depressive symptoms as well as the onset of major depressive episodes (see Watkins, 2008). More recent research has identified two aspects of rumination labeled brooding and reflective pondering (i.e., reflection). According to Treynor et al. (2003), brooding involves “a passive comparison of one’s current situation with some unachieved standard” whereas reflection refers to “purposeful turning inward to engage in cognitive problem solving to alleviate one’s depressive symptoms” (p. 256). Whereas research has consistently linked brooding to depression, research investigating the relationship of reflection and depression has produced conflicting results. Some studies have found that reflection, like brooding, is positively correlated with depression (Roelofs et al., 2008; Rudeet al., 2007; Verhaeghen, Joormann, & Khan, 2005) whereas others have either found reflection to be unrelated to (Burwell & Shirk, 2007; O’Connor & Noyce, 2008) or even negatively correlated with depressive symptoms (Treynor et al., 2003; Crane, Barnhofer, & Williams, 2007).
In the present study, we sought to better understand the association between reflection and depressive symptoms. Specifically, we predicted that reflection (R) and brooding (B) should interact to predict depressive symptoms. This prediction was based on two lines of reasoning: 1) Some of the questions on the reflection subscale of the Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS; Treynor et al., 2003) are ambiguous and could be endorsed by high brooders, and 2) Efforts at reflection may trigger bouts of brooding, especially among individuals with deficits in executive control. Both lines of reasoning suggest that high scores on reflection should have a different meaning when they co-occur with high scores on brooding. Specifically, high levels of reflection should predict high depressive symptoms mainly among individuals who report a tendency to brood.
Consistent with expectation, the RxB interaction was significant such that reflection was positively associated with depressive symptoms only when co-occurring with high levels of brooding. Additionally, reflection interacted with EC and mindfulness such that it was positively associated with both brooding and depressive symptoms only among individuals reporting low capacity for executive control of their reactive responses or low levels of mindfulness. Implications for theory and future research will be discussed.