The implementation of increasingly stringent regulations for trihalomethanes (THM) and haloacetic acids (HAA) in the United States has resulted in an increasing use of chloramine within the past two decades as a secondary disinfectant in the drinking water treatment industry. Along with the addition of chloramines comes the risk of nitrification in the distribution system due to the ammonia which is released during chloramine decay. Nitrification in drinking water distribution systems may result in degradation of water quality and subsequent non-compliance with existing regulations.
Meanwhile, orthophosphate (PO43-) plays an important role in corrosion control by combining with lead and copper in plumbing materials; it is recommended to maintain a phosphate residual of at least 0.5 mg P/L and, if possible, a residual of 1 mg P/L is preferable. However, relatively little is known about the effect of phosphate on nitrifying biofilm in chloraminated drinking water distribution systems when it comes to addition of phosphate to the water distribution system.
The primary objective of this research was to develop, fabricate and evaluate microelectrodes to evaluate nitrification within chloraminated drinking water system biofilm, and to determine the effects of phosphate on nitrifying bacteria biofilm. Chlorine microelectrodes for measuring monochloramine and phosphate microelectrodes for detecting phosphate ions in the biological sample (i.e. biofilms, aggregates) were developed, characterized and applied for in-situ environmental analyses. Both microelectrodes showed excellent selectivity toward target constituents and were successfully applied.
Monochloramine penetrated fully into nitrifying biofilms within 24 hours when fed at a 4:1 Cl2:N ratio, showing a cessation of aerobic activity via DO penetration following application of monochloramine. However, monochloramine penetration did not necessarily equate to a loss in viability, and the presence of excess ammonia in the water system prevented microbial inactivation. Biofilm recovery occurred when disinfection stopped. Monochloramine showed greater penetration compared to chlorine. Monochloramine penetrated into the biofilm surface layer 49 times faster than chlorine within the nitrifying biofilm and 39 times faster in the multi-species biofilm than did chlorine. Phosphate was found to act positively on biofilm development and nitrification in the long term. Phosphate microprofiles showed that phosphate contents in the biofilm was independent on the nitrifying activity. Low availability of phosphorus seemed to change biofilm structure at the biofilm surface. Phosphate did not affect the monochloramine penetration and monochloramine fully penetrated into the nitrifying biofilm within 24 hours both with and without phosphate.
The results of this research provide an improved insight into the relationship between phosphate as a corrosion inhibitor and nitrifying biofilm in chloraminated drinking water distribution systems, a better understanding of the impact of disinfectant (i.e. chlorine, monochloramine) penetration into biofilms on microbial activity changes (i.e. DO, ammonia, nitrate, and pH microprofiles), and understanding of the correlated viability achieved upon administration of chlorine or monochloramine disinfectant; this will allow development of better prevention and control strategies for nitrification episodes in the presence of phosphate, including for biofilm control.